What Is The Party Makeup Of The Us Senate

Upper house of the Us Congress

Coordinates: 38°53′26″N 77°0′32″Due west  /  38.89056°N 77.00889°W  / 38.89056; -77.00889

United States Senate
117th United States Congress
Seal of the U.Southward. Senate
Flag of the U.S. Senate
Type
Type	Upper house of the United States Congress
Term limits	None
History
New session started	January iii, 2021 (2021-01-03)
Leadership
President of the Senate	Kamala Harris (D) since January 20, 2021
President pro tempore	Patrick Leahy (D) since January xx, 2021
Majority Leader	Chuck Schumer (D) since January 20, 2021
Minority Leader	Mitch McConnell (R) since January twenty, 2021
Bulk Whip	Dick Durbin (D) since January 20, 2021
Minority Whip	John Thune (R) since January 20, 2021
Structure
Seats	100 51 (or 50 plus the Vice President) for a majority
Political groups	Bulk (50) [a] Democratic (48) Contained (2) [b] Minority (50) Republican (fifty)
Length of term	6 years
Elections
Voting system	Plurality voting in 46 states[c] Varies in 4 states GA and MS: 2-round system ME: Instant-runoff
Final election	Nov 3, 2020[d] (35 seats)
Next election	November 8, 2022 (35 seats)
Meeting place
Senate Bedroom Usa Capitol Washington, D.C. United States
Website
senate.gov
Constitution
United States Constitution
Rules
Standing Rules of the The states Senate

The United States Senate is the upper sleeping room of the United States Congress, with the House of Representatives existence the lower sleeping accommodation. Together they compose the national bicameral legislature of the United states of america.

The limerick and powers of the Senate are established by Article One of the United States Constitution.^[2] The Senate is equanimous of senators, each of whom represents a single state in its entirety. Each country is as represented by two senators who serve staggered terms of six years. In that location are currently 100 senators representing the 50 states. The vice president of the United States serves as presiding officer and president of the Senate by virtue of that office, and has a vote but if the senators are equally divided. In the vice president's absence, the president pro tempore, who is traditionally the senior member of the party holding a majority of seats, presides over the Senate.

As the upper chamber of Congress, the Senate has several powers of advice and consent which are unique to it. These include the approval of treaties, and the confirmation of Cabinet secretaries, federal judges (including Federal Supreme Courtroom justices), flag officers, regulatory officials, ambassadors, other federal executive officials and federal uniformed officers. If no candidate receives a majority of electors for vice president, the duty falls to the Senate to elect one of the superlative two recipients of electors for that office. The Senate conducts trials of those impeached by the House.

The Senate is widely considered both a more than deliberative^[3] and more prestigious^{[4] [5] [6]} body than the Firm of Representatives due to its longer terms, smaller size, and statewide constituencies, which historically led to a more collegial and less partisan temper.^[vii]

From 1789 to 1913, senators were appointed by legislatures of us they represented. They are at present elected by popular vote following the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913. In the early 1920s, the practice of bulk and minority parties electing their floor leaders began. The Senate'due south legislative and executive business is managed and scheduled by the Senate majority leader.

The Senate chamber is located in the north fly of the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C.

History

The drafters of the Constitution created a bicameral Congress primarily as a compromise between those who felt that each state, since it was sovereign, should exist equally represented, and those who felt the legislature must straight represent the people, as the House of Commons did in Great United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland. This idea of having one bedroom represent people as, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known equally the Connecticut Compromise. In that location was besides a desire to take two Houses that could human action as an internal cheque on each other. One was intended to exist a "People's House" directly elected by the people, and with short terms obliging the representatives to remain close to their constituents. The other was intended to stand for the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation.^[8]

Starting time convened in 1789, the Senate of the Usa was formed on the example of the aboriginal Roman Senate. The name is derived from the senatus, Latin for council of elders (from senex pregnant sometime homo in Latin).^[9]

James Madison made the following comment almost the Senate:

In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people, the property of landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrestal police force would shortly accept identify. If these observations remain just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the state confronting innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to residue and check the other. They ought to be so constituted as to protect the minority of the opulent against the majority. The Senate, therefore, ought to be this body; and to respond these purposes, they ought to accept permanency and stability.^[10]

—Notes of the Secret Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787

Article 5 of the Constitution stipulates that no constitutional amendment may exist created to deprive a state of its equal suffrage in the Senate without that state'due south consent. The District of Columbia and all other territories are not entitled to representation or allowed to vote in either house of Congress. They have official non-voting delegates in the Business firm of Representatives, but none in the Senate. The District of Columbia and Puerto Rico each additionally elect two "shadow senators", simply they are officials of their respective local governments and not members of the U.South. Senate.^[xi] The United states of america has had 50 states since 1959,^[12] thus the Senate has had 100 senators since 1959.^[8]

Graph showing historical party command of the U.S. Senate, House and Presidency since 1855^[13]

The disparity between the nigh and to the lowest degree populous states has grown since the Connecticut Compromise, which granted each state 2 members of the Senate and at to the lowest degree one member of the House of Representatives, for a full minimum of three presidential electors, regardless of population. In 1787, Virginia had roughly ten times the population of Rhode Island, whereas today California has roughly seventy times the population of Wyoming, based on the 1790 and 2020 censuses. Before the adoption of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913, senators were elected by the individual state legislatures.^[14] Problems with repeated vacant seats due to the disability of a legislature to elect senators, intrastate political struggles, bribery and intimidation gradually led to a growing movement to amend the Constitution to allow for the direct ballot of senators.^[15]

Current composition and ballot results

Members of the United states Senate for the 117th Congress

Current party standings

The party composition of the Senate during the 117th Congress:

Affiliation		Members
	Republican	fifty
	Autonomous	48
	Independents	ii[b]
Total		100

Membership

Qualifications

Article I, Department iii, of the Constitution, sets three qualifications for senators: (1) they must exist at to the lowest degree 30 years old; (2) they must have been citizens of the United States for at least 9 years; and (3) they must be inhabitants of the states they seek to represent at the fourth dimension of their election. The age and citizenship qualifications for senators are more stringent than those for representatives. In Federalist No. 62, James Madison justified this system by arguing that the "senatorial trust" chosen for a "greater extent of information and stability of graphic symbol":

A senator must be xxx years of historic period at least; as a representative must be twenty-5. And the former must take been a citizen ix years; equally seven years are required for the latter. The propriety of these distinctions is explained by the nature of the senatorial trust, which, requiring greater extent of information and stability of grapheme, requires at the same fourth dimension that the senator should have reached a period of life most likely to supply these advantages; and which, participating immediately in transactions with foreign nations, ought to exist exercised by none who are not thoroughly weaned from the prepossessions and habits incident to foreign birth and education. The term of ix years appears to be a prudent mediocrity between a full exclusion of adopted citizens, whose merits and talents may merits a share in the public confidence, and an indiscriminate and hasty admission of them, which might create a aqueduct for foreign influence on the national councils.^[xvi]

The Senate (not the judiciary) is the sole judge of a senator's qualifications. During its early on years, withal, the Senate did not closely scrutinize the qualifications of its members. Every bit a upshot, 4 senators who failed to meet the age requirement were even so admitted to the Senate: Henry Dirt (aged 29 in 1806), John Hashemite kingdom of jordan Crittenden (anile 29 in 1817), Armistead Thomson Mason (aged 28 in 1816), and John Eaton (aged 28 in 1818). Such an occurrence, nonetheless, has not been repeated since.^[17] In 1934, Rush D. Holt Sr. was elected to the Senate at the age of 29; he waited until he turned 30 (on the next June 19) to take the oath of office. In Nov 1972, Joe Biden was elected to the Senate at the historic period of 29, but he reached his 30th birthday earlier the swearing-in ceremony for incoming senators in January 1973.

The Fourteenth Amendment to the United states Constitution disqualifies every bit senators any federal or state officers who had taken the requisite oath to back up the Constitution but who later engaged in rebellion or aided the enemies of the U.s.a.. This provision, which came into force presently after the end of the Ceremonious War, was intended to preclude those who had sided with the Confederacy from serving. That Amendment, even so, as well provides a method to remove that disqualification: a two-thirds vote of both chambers of Congress.

Elections and term

Originally, senators were selected by the state legislatures, not by pop elections. By the early years of the 20th century, the legislatures of as many as 29 states had provided for popular election of senators by referendums.^[15] Pop election to the Senate was standardized nationally in 1913 by the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment.

Term

Senators serve terms of six years each; the terms are staggered so that approximately one-3rd of the seats are up for election every ii years. This was achieved past dividing the senators of the 1st Congress into thirds (called classes), where the terms of ane-third expired afterward 2 years, the terms of some other tertiary expired after four, and the terms of the last 3rd expired after vi years. This arrangement was too followed after the admission of new states into the matrimony. The staggering of terms has been arranged such that both seats from a given state are non contested in the same general ballot, except when a vacancy is being filled. Current senators whose six-twelvemonth terms are prepare to elapse on Jan iii, 2023, belong to Class III. At that place is no constitutional limit to the number of terms a senator may serve.

The Constitution set up the engagement for Congress to convene — Commodity one, Department 4, Clause 2, originally fix that engagement for the tertiary day of Dec. The Twentieth Amendment, all the same, changed the opening date for sessions to noon on the third solar day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. The Twentieth Subpoena as well states that the Congress shall assemble at least once every twelvemonth, and allows the Congress to determine its convening and adjournment dates and other dates and schedules equally it desires. Commodity 1, Department 3, provides that the president has the ability to convene Congress on extraordinary occasions at his discretion.^[18]

A member who has been elected, only non yet seated, is called a senator-elect; a member who has been appointed to a seat, but not yet seated, is called a senator-designate.

Elections

Elections to the Senate are held on the outset Tuesday after the first Monday in November in even-numbered years, Election Day, and coincide with elections for the Firm of Representatives.^[19] Senators are elected past their country every bit a whole. The Elections Clause of the United States Constitution grants each state (and Congress, if it so desires to implement a uniform law) the ability to legislate a method past which senators are elected. Election access rules for contained and small-scale party candidates too vary from state to land.

In 45 states, a chief election is held first for the Republican and Democratic parties (and a select few third parties, depending on the land) with the general election following a few months later. In almost of these states, the nominee may receive only a plurality, while in some states, a runoff is required if no majority was achieved. In the full general election, the winner is the candidate who receives a plurality of the popular vote.

Nonetheless, in 5 states, dissimilar methods are used. In Georgia, a runoff betwixt the top two candidates occurs if the plurality winner in the general ballot does not also win a bulk. In California, Washington, and Louisiana, a nonpartisan coating principal (also known as a "jungle master" or "pinnacle-two primary") is held in which all candidates participate in a single primary regardless of party affiliation and the meridian two candidates in terms of votes received at the main election advance to the general election, where the winner is the candidate with the greater number of votes. In Louisiana, the blanket primary is considered the general election and candidates receiving a majority of the votes is declared the winner, skipping a run-off. In Maine and Alaska, ranked-choice voting is used to nominate and elect candidates for federal offices, including the Senate.^[20]

Vacancies

The Seventeenth Subpoena requires that vacancies in the Senate be filled past special ballot. Whenever a senator must be appointed or elected, the secretary of the Senate mails 1 of three forms to the state's governor to inform them of the proper diction to certify the appointment of a new senator.^[21] If a special election for one seat happens to coincide with a general election for the state's other seat, each seat is contested separately. A senator elected in a special election takes office every bit soon every bit possible after the election and serves until the original half-dozen-twelvemonth term expires (i.e. not for a full-term).

The Seventeenth Amendment permits state legislatures to empower their governors to make temporary appointments until the required special election takes place.

The manner by which the Seventeenth Amendment is enacted varies among usa. A 2018 report breaks this down into the following three broad categories (specific procedures vary among the states):^[22]

• V states – North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, and Wisconsin – do not empower their governors to make temporary appointments, relying exclusively on the required special ballot provision in the Seventeenth Amendment.^{[22] : 7–8}
• Nine states – Alabama, Alaska, Connecticut, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Texas, Vermont, and Washington – provide for gubernatorial appointments, but as well require a special election on an accelerated schedule.^{[22] : 10–11}
• The remaining thirty-six states provide for gubernatorial appointments, "with the appointed senator serving the balance of the term or until the next statewide full general election".^{[22] : 8–9}

In six states within the terminal category above – Arizona, Hawaii, Maryland, North Carolina, Utah, and Wyoming – the governor must appoint someone of the aforementioned political political party as the previous incumbent.^{[22] : 9}

In September 2009, Massachusetts changed its law to enable the governor to engage a temporary replacement for the late senator Edward Kennedy until the special election in January 2010.^{[23] [24]}

In 2004, Alaska enacted legislation and a separate ballot plebiscite that took effect on the same 24-hour interval, but that conflicted with each other. The effect of the ballot-canonical constabulary is to withhold from the governor authority to appoint a senator.^[25] Because the 17th Subpoena vests the ability to grant that potency to the legislature – not the people or the state generally – it is unclear whether the ballot measure supplants the legislature's statute granting that authority.^[25] As a result, it is uncertain whether an Alaska governor may appoint an interim senator to serve until a special ballot is held to fill the vacancy.

Oath

The Constitution requires that senators have an oath or affidavit to support the Constitution.^[26] Congress has prescribed the following adjuration for all federal officials (except the President), including senators:

I, ___ ___, practice solemnly swear (or assert) that I will support and defend the Constitution of the U.s.a. against all enemies, foreign and domestic; that I will bear truthful faith and allegiance to the same; that I have this obligation freely, without whatever mental reservation or purpose of evasion; and that I will well and faithfully discharge the duties of the part on which I am about to enter. And so help me God.^[27]

Salary and benefits

The annual salary of each senator, since 2009, is $174,000;^[28] the president pro tempore and political party leaders receive $193,400.^{[28] [29]} In June 2003, at to the lowest degree 40 senators were millionaires;^[30] in 2018, over l senators were millionaires.^[31]

Along with earning salaries, senators receive retirement and health benefits that are identical to other federal employees, and are fully vested afterward five years of service.^[29] Senators are covered by the Federal Employees Retirement System (FERS) or Ceremonious Service Retirement Organisation (CSRS). FERS has been the Senate's retirement system since January one, 1987, while CSRS applies only for those senators who were in the Senate from December 31, 1986, and prior. As it is for federal employees, congressional retirement is funded through taxes and the participants' contributions. Under FERS, senators contribute 1.3% of their salary into the FERS retirement plan and pay six.2% of their salary in Social Security taxes. The corporeality of a senator'due south pension depends on the years of service and the average of the highest 3 years of their salary. The starting amount of a senator's retirement annuity may not exceed 80% of their final salary. In 2006, the boilerplate annual alimony for retired senators and representatives under CSRS was $60,972, while those who retired under FERS, or in combination with CSRS, was $35,952.^[29]

Seniority

Seniority is a cistron in the selection of concrete offices and in party caucuses' assignment of committees.^[32]

Expulsion and other disciplinary deportment

The Senate may miscarry a senator by a two-thirds vote. 15 senators have been expelled in the Senate's history: William Blount, for treason, in 1797, and fourteen in 1861 and 1862 for supporting the Amalgamated secession. Although no senator has been expelled since 1862, many senators have chosen to resign when faced with expulsion proceedings – for example, Bob Packwood in 1995. The Senate has also censured and condemned senators; censure requires just a uncomplicated majority and does not remove a senator from office. Some senators have opted to withdraw from their re-election races rather than face certain censure or expulsion, such as Robert Torricelli in 2002.

Majority and minority parties

The "majority party" is the political party that either has a majority of seats or can grade a coalition or caucus with a bulk of seats; if two or more parties are tied, the vice president's affiliation determines which party is the bulk party. The next-largest party is known as the minority party. The president pro tempore, committee chairs, and another officials are more often than not from the majority party; they have counterparts (for case, the "ranking members" of committees) in the minority party. Independents and members of third parties (and so long as they do not caucus support either of the larger parties) are not considered in determining which is the majority party.

Seating

At 1 end of the sleeping room of the Senate is a dais from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. Ane hundred desks are bundled in the sleeping accommodation in a semicircular pattern and are divided by a wide key aisle. The Democratic Political party traditionally sits to the presiding officeholder'due south right, and the Republican Political party traditionally sits to the presiding officer's left, regardless of which party has a bulk of seats.^[33]

Each senator chooses a desk based on seniority within the political party. Past custom, the leader of each party sits in the front row along the center alley. Forty-eight of the desks date back to 1819, when the Senate bedroom was reconstructed after the original contents were destroyed in the 1812 Burning of Washington. Further desks of similar design were added equally new states entered the Union.^[34] Information technology is a tradition that each senator who uses a desk inscribes their proper name on the inside of the desk's drawer.^[35]

Officers

Except for the president of the Senate (who is the vice president), the Senate elects its own officers,^[2] who maintain gild and decorum, manage and schedule the legislative and executive business of the Senate, and translate the Senate'south rules, practices and precedents. Many non-member officers are also hired to run various twenty-four hour period-to-day functions of the Senate.

Presiding officer

Under the Constitution, the vice president serves every bit president of the Senate. They may vote in the Senate (ex officio, for they are not an elected member of the Senate) in the instance of a tie, merely are not required to.^[36] For much of the nation's history the chore of presiding over Senate sessions was one of the vice president's main duties (the other being to receive from the states the tally of balloter ballots cast for president and vice president and to open the certificates "in the Presence of the Senate and Business firm of Representatives", so that the total votes could be counted). Since the 1950s, vice presidents take presided over few Senate debates. Instead, they have usually presided only on ceremonial occasions, such as swearing in new senators, articulation sessions, or at times to announce the upshot of pregnant legislation or nomination, or when a tie vote on an important outcome is predictable.

The Constitution authorizes the Senate to elect a president pro tempore (Latin for "president for a fourth dimension"), who presides over the sleeping accommodation in the vice president's absence and is, by custom, the senator of the majority party with the longest record of continuous service.^[37] Like the vice president, the president pro tempore does not normally preside over the Senate, just typically delegates the responsibility of presiding to a majority-party senator who presides over the Senate, usually in blocks of 1 hour on a rotating basis. Frequently, freshmen senators (newly elected members) are asked to preside so that they may become accustomed to the rules and procedures of the body. It is said that, "in practice they are normally mere mouthpieces for the Senate'southward parliamentarian, who whispers what they should do".^[38]

The presiding officer sits in a chair in the front of the Senate sleeping accommodation. The powers of the presiding officer of the Senate are far less extensive than those of the speaker of the Firm. The presiding officer calls on senators to speak (by the rules of the Senate, the outset senator who rises is recognized); ruling on points of order (objections by senators that a rule has been breached, field of study to appeal to the whole chamber); and announcing the results of votes.

Party leaders

Each party elects Senate political party leaders. Floor leaders act equally the party chief spokesmen. The Senate bulk leader is responsible for controlling the agenda of the sleeping accommodation by scheduling debates and votes. Each party elects an assistant leader (whip), who works to ensure that his party's senators vote equally the party leadership desires.

Non-fellow member officers

In improver to the vice president, the Senate has several officers who are non members. The Senate's master authoritative officer is the secretary of the Senate, who maintains public records, disburses salaries, monitors the acquisition of jotter and supplies, and oversees clerks. The banana secretarial assistant of the Senate aids the secretarial assistant'due south piece of work. Another official is the sergeant at arms who, every bit the Senate's chief police force enforcement officer, maintains guild and security on the Senate premises. The Capitol Police force handle routine police work, with the sergeant at arms primarily responsible for general oversight. Other employees include the chaplain, who is elected by the Senate, and pages, who are appointed.

Procedure

Daily sessions

The Senate uses Standing Rules for functioning. Similar the House of Representatives, the Senate meets in the United states of america Capitol in Washington, D.C. At one finish of the chamber of the Senate is a dais from which the presiding officer presides. The lower tier of the dais is used by clerks and other officials. Sessions of the Senate are opened with a special prayer or invocation and typically convene on weekdays. Sessions of the Senate are generally open to the public and are broadcast live on television receiver, usually by C-Bridge 2.

Senate process depends non only on the rules, just likewise on a variety of customs and traditions. The Senate commonly waives some of its stricter rules by unanimous consent. Unanimous consent agreements are typically negotiated beforehand by party leaders. A senator may block such an agreement, but in exercise, objections are rare. The presiding officeholder enforces the rules of the Senate, and may warn members who deviate from them. The presiding officer sometimes uses the gavel of the Senate to maintain order.

A "agree" is placed when the leader's function is notified that a senator intends to object to a request for unanimous consent from the Senate to consider or pass a measure. A concord may exist placed for any reason and can be lifted by a senator at whatever time. A senator may identify a hold simply to review a neb, to negotiate changes to the bill, or to kill the bill. A bill can exist held for as long as the senator who objects to the bill wishes to block its consideration.

Holds tin can be overcome, but crave time-consuming procedures such equally filing cloture. Holds are considered private communications betwixt a senator and the leader, and are sometimes referred to as "secret holds". A senator may disembalm the placement of a concord.

The Constitution provides that a bulk of the Senate constitutes a quorum to practise business. Under the rules and customs of the Senate, a quorum is always assumed present unless a quorum phone call explicitly demonstrates otherwise. A senator may request a quorum phone call by "suggesting the absence of a quorum"; a clerk then calls the roll of the Senate and notes which members are nowadays. In practice, senators rarely asking quorum calls to establish the presence of a quorum. Instead, quorum calls are mostly used to temporarily delay proceedings; usually, such delays are used while waiting for a senator to reach the floor to speak or to give leaders fourth dimension to negotiate. Once the demand for a delay has concluded, a senator may request unanimous consent to rescind the quorum call.

Debate

Debate, like most other matters governing the internal functioning of the Senate, is governed past internal rules adopted past the Senate. During a debate, senators may only speak if called upon past the presiding officeholder, only the presiding officeholder is required to recognize the beginning senator who rises to speak. Thus, the presiding officeholder has little command over the course of the debate. Customarily, the majority leader and minority leader are accorded priority during debates even if another senator rises beginning. All speeches must exist addressed to the presiding officer, who is addressed as "Mr. President" or "Madam President", and not to another member; other Members must be referred to in the third person. In most cases, senators practise not refer to each other past name, just by state or position, using forms such equally "the senior senator from Virginia", "the gentleman from California", or "my distinguished friend the chairman of the Judiciary Committee". Senators address the Senate continuing adjacent to their desks.^[39]

Apart from rules governing civility, in that location are few restrictions on the content of speeches; there is no requirement that speeches pertain to the matter before the Senate.

The rules of the Senate provide that no senator may brand more than than two speeches on a motion or bill on the same legislative mean solar day. A legislative day begins when the Senate convenes and ends with adjournment; hence, it does not necessarily coincide with the calendar day. The length of these speeches is not limited by the rules; thus, in well-nigh cases, senators may speak for every bit long equally they delight. Oft, the Senate adopts unanimous consent agreements imposing time limits. In other cases (for example, for the budget process), limits are imposed past statute. However, the correct to unlimited debate is by and large preserved.

Inside the The states, the Senate is sometimes referred to as "world's greatest deliberative body".^{[40] [41] [42]}

Filibuster and cloture

The filibuster is a tactic used to defeat bills and motions past prolonging debate indefinitely. A filibuster may entail long speeches, dilatory motions, and an extensive series of proposed amendments. The Senate may end a filibuster by invoking cloture. In most cases, cloture requires the back up of three-fifths of the Senate; however, if the affair before the Senate involves changing the rules of the body – this includes alteration provisions regarding the filibuster – a two-thirds majority is required. In current practice, the threat of delay is more than important than its use; well-nigh any motion that does non have the support of three-fifths of the Senate effectively fails. This means that 41 senators can make a filibuster happen. Historically, cloture has rarely been invoked because bipartisan support is ordinarily necessary to obtain the required supermajority, then a bill that already has bipartisan support is rarely subject to threats of filibuster. However, motions for cloture have increased significantly in contempo years.

If the Senate invokes cloture, the debate does not necessarily finish immediately; instead, it is limited to upward to 30 additional hours unless increased by another three-fifths vote. The longest filibuster spoken communication in the Senate's history was delivered by Strom Thurmond (D-SC), who spoke for over 24 hours in an unsuccessful attempt to block the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957.^[43]

Under certain circumstances, the Congressional Budget Human activity of 1974 provides for a procedure chosen "reconciliation" past which Congress can pass bills related to the budget without those bills existence subject to a filibuster. This is achieved by limiting all Senate floor contend to 20 hours.^[44]

Voting

When the debate concludes, the move in question is put to a vote. The Senate often votes by voice vote. The presiding officer puts the question, and members respond either "Yea/Aye" (in favor of the motion) or "Nay" (against the movement). The presiding officer and so announces the result of the vox vote. A senator, however, may challenge the presiding officer'southward assessment and request a recorded vote. The request may be granted only if information technology is seconded past 1-fifth of the senators present. In practice, even so, senators 2d requests for recorded votes as a matter of courtesy. When a recorded vote is held, the clerk calls the curlicue of the Senate in alphabetical order; senators answer when their name is called. Senators who were not in the chamber when their name was called may nonetheless cast a vote so long as the voting remains open. The vote is closed at the discretion of the presiding officer, but must remain open up for a minimum of xv minutes. A bulk of those voting determines whether the movement carries.^[45] If the vote is tied, the vice president, if present, is entitled to cast a tie-breaking vote. If the vice president is non present, the movement fails.^[46]

Filibustered bills require a three-fifths majority to overcome the cloture vote (which usually ways 60 votes) and get to the normal vote where a unproblematic majority (usually 51 votes) approves the nib. This has caused some news media to misfile the threescore votes needed to overcome a filibuster with the 51 votes needed to approve a bill, with for example USA Today erroneously stating "The vote was 58–39 in favor of the provision establishing concealed acquit permit reciprocity in the 48 states that have concealed weapons laws. That fell ii votes brusque of the 60 needed to corroborate the mensurate".^[45]

Closed session

On occasion, the Senate may go into what is called a cloak-and-dagger or airtight session. During a closed session, the bedchamber doors are airtight, cameras are turned off, and the galleries are completely cleared of anyone non sworn to secrecy, not instructed in the rules of the closed session, or non essential to the session. Closed sessions are rare and commonly held simply when the Senate is discussing sensitive field of study thing such as information critical to national security, private communications from the president, or deliberations during impeachment trials. A senator may phone call for and force a airtight session if the motility is seconded by at least one other member, but an agreement usually occurs beforehand.^[47] If the Senate does not approve the release of a secret transcript, the transcript is stored in the Office of Senate Security and ultimately sent to the national archives. The proceedings remain sealed indefinitely until the Senate votes to remove the injunction of secrecy.^[48] In 1973, the House adopted a rule that all committee sessions should exist open up unless a majority on the commission voted for a closed session.

Calendars

The Senate maintains a Senate Calendar and an Executive Agenda.^[49] The sometime identifies bills and resolutions awaiting Senate floor deportment. The latter identifies executive resolutions, treaties, and nominations reported out by Senate committee(south) and awaiting Senate floor action. Both are updated each day the Senate is in session.

Committees

The Senate uses committees (and their subcommittees) for a variety of purposes, including the review of bills and the oversight of the executive branch. Formally, the whole Senate appoints committee members. In do, nonetheless, the selection of members is made by the political parties. Generally, each political party honors the preferences of individual senators, giving priority based on seniority. Each party is allocated seats on committees in proportion to its overall forcefulness.

Nigh committee piece of work is performed by xvi standing committees, each of which has jurisdiction over a field such every bit finance or foreign relations. Each continuing committee may consider, meliorate, and written report bills that fall nether its jurisdiction. Furthermore, each standing committee considers presidential nominations to offices related to its jurisdiction. (For instance, the Judiciary Committee considers nominees for judgeships, and the Foreign Relations Commission considers nominees for positions in the Department of Country.) Committees may block nominees and impede bills from reaching the floor of the Senate. Standing committees also oversee the departments and agencies of the executive branch. In discharging their duties, continuing committees have the ability to agree hearings and to subpoena witnesses and evidence.

The Senate also has several committees that are non considered standing committees. Such bodies are by and large known as select or special committees; examples include the Select Commission on Ethics and the Special Committee on Aging. Legislation is referred to some of these committees, although the bulk of legislative work is performed by the standing committees. Committees may be established on an ad hoc ground for specific purposes; for instance, the Senate Watergate Commission was a special committee created to investigate the Watergate scandal. Such temporary committees end to exist subsequently fulfilling their tasks.

The Congress includes joint committees, which include members from both the Senate and the House of Representatives. Some joint committees oversee independent government bodies; for instance, the Joint Committee on the Library oversees the Library of Congress. Other joint committees serve to make advisory reports; for instance, there exists a Joint Committee on Revenue enhancement. Bills and nominees are not referred to articulation committees. Hence, the power of articulation committees is considerably lower than those of continuing committees.

Each Senate committee and subcommittee is led past a chair (commonly a member of the majority political party). Formerly, commission chairs were adamant purely past seniority; as a consequence, several elderly senators continued to serve as chair despite severe physical infirmity or even senility.^[fifty] Commission chairs are elected, but, in practice, seniority is rarely bypassed. The chairs hold extensive powers: they control the commission's agenda, so decide how much, if whatever, time to devote to the consideration of a bill; they deed with the power of the committee in disapproving or delaying a neb or a nomination past the president; they manage on the floor of the full Senate the consideration of those bills the committee reports. This last office was peculiarly of import in mid-century, when floor amendments were idea not to exist collegial. They also have considerable influence: senators who cooperate with their committee chairs are likely to accomplish more skillful for their states than those who practice non. The Senate rules and customs were reformed in the twentieth century, largely in the 1970s. Committee chairmen have less power and are generally more moderate and collegial in exercising information technology, than they were earlier reform.^[51] The second-highest fellow member, the spokesperson on the committee for the minority party, is known in most cases as the ranking member.^[52] In the Select Committee on Intelligence and the Select Committee on Ethics, however, the senior minority member is known as the vice-chair.

Criticism

Recent criticisms of the Senate's operations object to what the critics argue is obsolescence as a effect of partisan paralysis and a preponderance of cabalistic rules.^{[53] [54]}

The Senate delay is frequently debated. The Constitution specifies a simple bulk threshold to pass legislation, and some critics feel the de facto iii-fifths threshold for full general legislation prevents beneficial laws from passing. (The nuclear pick was exercised by both parties in the 2010s to eliminate the filibuster for confirmations.) Supporters by and large consider the filibuster to be an important protection for the minority views and a check against the unfettered unmarried-party rule when the same political party holds the Presidency and a majority in both the House and Senate.

Though this was an intentional part of the Connecticut Compromise, critics have described the fact that representation in the Senate is not proportional to the population as "anti-democratic" and "minority dominion".^{[55] [56]} New York Times stance columnist David Leonhardt points out^[57] that because small states are disproportionately non-Hispanic European American, African Americans have 75% of their proportionate voting power in the Senate, and Hispanic Americans take but 55%. The approximately four 1000000 Americans that take no representation in the Senate (in the District of Columbia and U.S. territories) are heavily African and Hispanic American. Leonhardt and others advocate for albeit Washington, D.C. and Puerto Rico every bit states (both have more than residents than the smallest existing states) to reduce this inequity.

Senate role buildings

External video
Senate Edifice, Washington DC, Hard disk drive from 35mm

At that place are shortly three Senate office buildings located forth Constitution Artery, due north of the Capitol. They are the Russell Senate Function Edifice, the Dirksen Senate Part Building, and the Hart Senate Office Building.

Functions

Legislation

Bills may be introduced in either chamber of Congress. However, the Constitution'southward Origination Clause provides that "All bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the Firm of Representatives".^[58] Equally a result, the Senate does not have the power to initiate bills imposing taxes. Furthermore, the House of Representatives holds that the Senate does not take the power to originate appropriation bills, or bills authorizing the expenditure of federal funds.^{[59] [60] [61] [62]} Historically, the Senate has disputed the estimation advocated by the Firm. However, when the Senate originates an appropriations bill, the Business firm simply refuses to consider it, thereby settling the dispute in do. The constitutional provision barring the Senate from introducing acquirement bills is based on the practice of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, in which coin bills approved by Parliament have originated in the Business firm of Eatables per ramble convention.^[63]

Although the Constitution gave the House the ability to initiate acquirement bills, in practice the Senate is equal to the House in the respect of spending. Every bit Woodrow Wilson wrote:

The Senate's right to improve full general appropriation bills has been immune the widest possible scope. The upper house may add to them what it pleases; may get altogether outside of their original provisions and tack to them entirely new features of legislation, altering not merely the amounts merely even the objects of expenditure, and making out of the materials sent them by the popular sleeping accommodation measures of an nigh totally new character.^[64]

The approval of both houses is required for any bill, including a revenue bill, to become police. Both Houses must laissez passer the same version of the bill; if there are differences, they may be resolved by sending amendments back and forth or by a conference committee, which includes members of both bodies.

Checks and balances

The Constitution provides several unique functions for the Senate that form its ability to "bank check and remainder" the powers of other elements of the federal regime. These include the requirement that the Senate may propose and must consent to some of the president'southward government appointments; too the Senate must consent to all treaties with foreign governments; information technology tries all impeachments, and information technology elects the vice president in the event no person gets a bulk of the electoral votes.

The president tin make certain appointments merely with the communication and consent of the Senate. Officials whose appointments require the Senate'due south approval include members of the Chiffonier, heads of most federal executive agencies, ambassadors, justices of the Supreme Court, and other federal judges. Nether Article Ii, Department 2, of the Constitution, a big number of government appointments are discipline to potential confirmation; however, Congress has passed legislation to authorize the appointment of many officials without the Senate's consent (usually, confirmation requirements are reserved for those officials with the most significant final determination-making authority). Typically, a nominee is the first subject to a hearing earlier a Senate committee. Thereafter, the nomination is considered past the total Senate. The bulk of nominees are confirmed, but in a pocket-size number of cases each year, Senate committees purposely fail to human activity on a nomination to block information technology. In improver, the president sometimes withdraws nominations when they announced unlikely to be confirmed. Considering of this, outright rejections of nominees on the Senate floor are exceptional (there take been just 9 Cabinet nominees rejected outright in U.s.a. history).^[65]

The powers of the Senate apropos nominations are, however, subject to some constraints. For instance, the Constitution provides that the president may make an appointment during a congressional recess without the Senate's communication and consent. The recess appointment remains valid just temporarily; the office becomes vacant once again at the end of the next congressional session. Nevertheless, presidents take frequently used recess appointments to circumvent the possibility that the Senate may decline the nominee. Furthermore, every bit the Supreme Court held in Myers v. United States, although the Senate's advice and consent are required for the appointment of sure executive branch officials, information technology is not necessary for their removal.^{[66] [67]} Recess appointments have faced a significant amount of resistance and in 1960, the U.South. Senate passed a legally non-binding resolution confronting recess appointments.^{[ citation needed ]}

The Senate too has a office in ratifying treaties. The Constitution provides that the president may merely "make Treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators nowadays concur" in gild to benefit from the Senate's advice and consent and give each state an equal vote in the procedure. All the same, not all international agreements are considered treaties under U.S. domestic law, even if they are considered treaties under international law. Congress has passed laws authorizing the president to conclude executive agreements without action by the Senate. Similarly, the president may make congressional-executive agreements with the approval of a simple majority in each House of Congress, rather than a two-thirds majority in the Senate. Neither executive agreements nor congressional-executive agreements are mentioned in the Constitution, leading some scholars such as Laurence Tribe and John Yoo^[68] to suggest that they unconstitutionally circumvent the treaty-ratification process. However, courts have upheld the validity of such agreements.^[69]

The Constitution empowers the House of Representatives to impeach federal officials for "Treason, Bribery, or other loftier Crimes and Misdemeanors" and empowers the Senate to endeavor such impeachments. If the sitting president of the U.s.a. is beingness tried, the chief justice of the United States presides over the trial. During an impeachment trial, senators are constitutionally required to sit down on oath or affidavit. Confidence requires a two-thirds majority of the senators present. A bedevilled official is automatically removed from part; in improver, the Senate may stipulate that the accused exist banned from holding office. No further penalty is permitted during the impeachment proceedings; however, the party may face criminal penalties in a normal court of law.

The House of Representatives has impeached 16 officials, of whom seven were bedevilled (one resigned earlier the Senate could complete the trial).^[70] Only three presidents have been impeached: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Beak Clinton in 1998, and Donald Trump in 2019 and 2021. The trials of Johnson, Clinton and both Trump trials ended in acquittal; in Johnson'due south case, the Senate fell i vote brusk of the two-thirds majority required for conviction.

Under the Twelfth Subpoena, the Senate has the power to elect the vice president if no vice-presidential candidate receives a majority of votes in the Balloter College. The Twelfth Amendment requires the Senate to choose from the two candidates with the highest numbers of electoral votes. Electoral College deadlocks are rare. The Senate has only broken a deadlock once; in 1837, it elected Richard Mentor Johnson. The Business firm elects the president if the Electoral College deadlocks on that choice.

See also

• Edward M. Kennedy Establish for the United States Senate
• Elections in the Usa
• Listing of African-American United States senators
• United states of america presidents and control of Congress
• Women in the United States Senate

Notes

1. ^ Democrats are in the majority due to the tiebreaking power of Democratic Vice President Kamala Harris, who serves ex officio as the president of the Senate.
2. ^ ^{a b} The independent senators, Angus King of Maine and Bernie Sanders of Vermont, caucus with the Democrats.^[1]
3. ^ Alaska (for its primary elections just), California, and Washington additionally utilize a nonpartisan blanket primary, and Louisiana uses a Louisiana primary, for their corresponding main elections.
4. ^ Too the Georgia runoff ballot and the Georgia special runoff election held on January 5, 2021.

References

1. ^ "Maine Independent Angus King To Conclave With Senate Democrats". Politico. November xiv, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2020. Angus Rex of Maine, who cruised to victory concluding week running every bit an independent, said Wednesday that he will caucus with Senate Democrats. [...] The Senate's other independent, Bernie Sanders of Vermont, as well caucuses with the Democrats.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Constitution of the U.s.a.". Senate.gov. March 26, 2009. Retrieved October 4, 2010.
3. ^ Amar, Vik D. (January 1, 1988). "The Senate and the Constitution". The Yale Law Journal. 97 (6): 1111–1130. doi:10.2307/796343. JSTOR 796343. S2CID 53702587.
4. ^ Stewart, Charles; Reynolds, Marker (January 1, 1990). "Television Markets and U.S. Senate Elections". Legislative Studies Quarterly. 15 (4): 495–523. doi:ten.2307/439894. JSTOR 439894.
5. ^ Richard L. Berke (September 12, 1999). "In Fight for Control of Congress, Tough Skirmishes Inside Parties". The New York Times.
6. ^ Joseph South. Friedman (March xxx, 2009). "The Rapid Sequence of Events Forcing the Senate's Manus: A Reappraisal of the Seventeenth Subpoena, 1890–1913". Curej – College Undergraduate Enquiry Electronic Periodical.
7. ^ Lee, Frances E. (June 16, 2006). "Agreeing to Disagree: Agenda Content and Senate Partisanship, 198". Legislative Studies Quarterly. 33 (2): 199–222. doi:10.3162/036298008784311000.
8. ^ ^{a b} "U.S. Constitution: Article 1, Department i". Retrieved March 22, 2012.
9. ^ "Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary: senate". Retrieved March 22, 2012.
10. ^ Robert Yates. Notes of the Clandestine Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787 . Retrieved March 17, 2017.
11. ^ "Not-voting members of Congress". Archived from the original on November 23, 2010. Retrieved March 22, 2011.
12. ^ "Hawaii becomes 50th land". History.com . Retrieved March 22, 2011.
13. ^ "Party In Power – Congress and Presidency – A Visual Guide To The Residue of Ability In Congress, 1945–2008". Uspolitics.nigh.com. Archived from the original on Nov 1, 2012. Retrieved September 17, 2012.
14. ^ Article I, Section three: "The Senate of the The states shall be composed of ii senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; each Senator shall have one vote."
15. ^ ^{a b} "Straight Election of Senators". U.Southward. Senate official website. Retrieved Apr 23, 2019.
16. ^ Federalist Papers, No. 62, Library of Congress.
17. ^ 1801–1850, November 16, 1818: Youngest Senator. Usa Senate. Retrieved November 17, 2007.
18. ^ Dates of Sessions of the Congress. Us Senate. Retrieved June 17, 2020.
19. ^ 2 U.S.C. § 1
20. ^ Brooks, James (December 14, 2020). "Election audit confirms win for Ballot Measure out 2 and Alaska's new ranked-choice voting system". Anchorage Daily News . Retrieved January 10, 2021.
21. ^ "The Term of A Senator – When Does It Begin and End? – Senate 98-29" (PDF). United States Senate. United States Press Office. pp. 14–fifteen. Retrieved Nov thirteen, 2015.
22. ^ ^{a b c d east} Neale, Thomas H. (April 12, 2018). "U.S. Senate Vacancies: Contemporary Developments and Perspectives" (PDF). fas.org. Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 5, 2018. Retrieved October 13, 2018. Annotation: wherever nowadays, references to page numbers in superscripts refer to the electronic (.pdf) pagination, not every bit found printed on the lesser margin of displayed pages.
23. ^ DeLeo, Robert A. (September 17, 2009). "Temporary Appointment of U.s. Senator". Massachusetts Peachy and General Court.
24. ^ DeLeo, Robert A. (September 17, 2009). "Temporary Date of US Senator Shall not exist a candidate in special ballot". Massachusetts Great and General Court.
25. ^ ^{a b} "Stevens could keep seat in Senate". Anchorage Daily News. Oct 28, 2009. Archived from the original on May 28, 2009.
26. ^ U.s.a. Constitution, Article VI
27. ^ Run into: 5 U.s.a.C. § 3331; see also: U.S. Senate Oath of Function
28. ^ ^{a b} Salaries. Us Senate. Retrieved October ii, 2013.
29. ^ ^{a b c} "The states Congress Salaries and Benefits". Usgovinfo.about.com. Retrieved Oct 2, 2013.
30. ^ Sean Loughlin and Robert Yoon (June 13, 2003). "Millionaires populate U.S. Senate". CNN. Retrieved June 19, 2006.
31. ^ "Wealth of Congress". Curlicue Telephone call . Retrieved November viii, 2018.
32. ^ Baker, Richard A. "Traditions of the United states of america Senate" (PDF). Page four.
33. ^ "Seating Arrangement". Senate Chamber Desks. Retrieved July 11, 2012.
34. ^ "Senate Sleeping room Desks – Overview". United States Senate.
35. ^ "Senate Chamber Desks – Desk Occupants". The states Senate.
36. ^ "Glossary Term: vice president". senate.gov. United States Senate. Retrieved Nov 10, 2016.
37. ^ "Glossary Term: president pro tempore". senate.gov. United States Senate. Retrieved November 10, 2016.
38. ^ Mershon, Erin (Baronial 2011). "Presiding Loses Its Prestige in Senate". Roll Call. rollcall.com. Retrieved February 8, 2017.
39. ^ Martin B. Aureate, Senate Procedure and Practise, p.39: Every member, when he speaks, shall address the chair, standing in his place, and when he has finished, shall sit down down.
40. ^ "The World'southward Greatest Deliberative Body". Time. July 5, 1993. Archived from the original on August 11, 2009.
41. ^ "World's greatest deliberative body watch". The Washington Post.
42. ^ "Senate reform: Lazing on a Senate afternoon". The Economist . Retrieved October 4, 2010.
43. ^ Quinton, Jeff. "Thurmond'due south Delay". Backcountry Conservative. July 27, 2003. Retrieved June 19, 2006.
44. ^ Reconciliation, ii U.Due south.C. § 641(e) (Process in the Senate).
45. ^ ^{a b} "How majority dominion works in the U.Due south. Senate". Nieman Watchdog. July 31, 2009.
46. ^ "Yea or Nay? Voting in the Senate". Senate.gov. Retrieved April 11, 2011.
47. ^ Amer, Mildred (March 27, 2008). "Hush-hush Sessions of Congress: A Brief Historical Overview" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 6, 2009.
48. ^ Amer, Mildred (March 27, 2008). "Hole-and-corner Sessions of the House and Senate" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August vi, 2009.
49. ^ "Calendars & Schedules" via Senate.gov
50. ^ See, for examples, American Dictionary of National Biography on John Sherman and Carter Glass; in full general, Ritchie, Congress, p. 209
51. ^ Ritchie, Congress, p. 44. Zelizer, On Capitol Colina describes this procedure; one of the reforms is that seniority inside the majority party can now be bypassed, so that chairs do run the risk of existence deposed past their colleagues. Come across in detail p. 17, for the unreformed Congress, and pp.188–9, for the Stevenson reforms of 1977.
52. ^ Ritchie, Congress, pp .44, 175, 209
53. ^ Mark Murray (August 2, 2010). "The inefficient Senate". Firstread.msnbc.msn.com. Archived from the original on Baronial 10, 2010. Retrieved October 4, 2010.
54. ^ Packer, George (Jan 7, 2009). "Filibusters and arcane obstructions in the Senate". The New Yorker . Retrieved October 4, 2010.
55. ^ How Democratic Is the American Constitution?
56. ^ Sizing Upwards the Senate
57. ^ The Senate: Affirmative Activity for White People
58. ^ "Constitution of the United States". Senate.gov. Retrieved Jan i, 2012.
59. ^ Saturno, James. "The Origination Clause of the U.S. Constitution: Interpretation and Enforcement", CRS Report for Congress (Mar-xv-2011).
60. ^ Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. The Invention of the United states Senate, p. 188 (Taylor & Francis 2004).
61. ^ Woodrow Wilson wrote that the Senate has extremely broad amendment say-so with regard to appropriations bills, as distinguished from bills that levy taxes. See Wilson, Woodrow. Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics, pp. 155–156 (Transaction Publishers 2002).
62. ^ Co-ordinate to the Library of Congress, the Constitution provides the origination requirement for revenue bills, whereas tradition provides the origination requirement for appropriation bills. See Sullivan, John. "How Our Laws Are Made Archived October 16, 2015, at the Wayback Automobile", Library of Congress (accessed August 26, 2013).
63. ^ Sargent, Noel. "Bills for Raising Acquirement Under the Federal and State Constitutions", Minnesota Police force Review, Vol. four, p. 330 (1919).
64. ^ Wilson Congressional Authorities, Affiliate III: "Revenue and Supply". Text common to all printings or "editions"; in Papers of Woodrow Wilson it is Vol.four (1968), p.91; for unchanged text, come across p. thirteen, ibid.
65. ^ Rex, Elizabeth. "This Is What Happened Last Time a Cabinet Nomination Was Rejected". time.com. Time USA, LLC. Retrieved April 11, 2020.
66. ^ Recess Appointments FAQ (PDF). US Senate, Congressional Research Service. Retrieved Nov 20, 2007
67. ^ Ritchie, Congress p. 178.
68. ^ Bolton, John R. (Jan 5, 2009). "Restore the Senate's Treaty Ability". The New York Times.
69. ^ For an example, and a discussion of the literature, see Laurence Tribe, "Taking Text and Construction Seriously: Reflections on Gratis-Class Method in Constitutional Interpretation", Harvard Law Review, Vol. 108, No. 6. (April 1995), pp. 1221–1303.
70. ^ Complete listing of impeachment trials. Archived December 8, 2010, at WebCite Us Senate. Retrieved November 20, 2007

Bibliography

• Baker, Richard A. The Senate of the United States: A Bicentennial History Krieger, 1988.
• Baker, Richard A., ed., First Among Equals: Outstanding Senate Leaders of the Twentieth Century Congressional Quarterly, 1991.
• Barone, Michael, and Grant Ujifusa, The Annual of American Politics 1976: The Senators, the Representatives and the Governors: Their Records and Election Results, Their States and Districts (1975); new edition every 2 years
• David Due west. Brady and Mathew D. McCubbins. Party, Process, and Political Modify in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress (2002)
• Caro, Robert A. The Years of Lyndon Johnson. Vol. 3: Master of the Senate. Knopf, 2002.
• Comiskey, Michael. Seeking Justices: The Judging of Supreme Court Nominees U. Press of Kansas, 2004.
• Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation XII: 2005–2008: Politics and Policy in the 109th and 110th Congresses (2010); massive, highly detailed summary of Congressional action, as well every bit major executive and judicial decisions; based on Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report and the almanac CQ annual. The Congress and the Nation 2009–2012 vol Thirteen has been announced for September 2014 publication.
  • Congressional Quarterly Congress and the Nation: 2001–2004 (2005);
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1997–2001 (2002)
  • Congressional Quarterly. Congress and the Nation: 1993–1996 (1998)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1989–1992 (1993)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1985–1988 (1989)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1981–1984 (1985)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1977–1980 (1981)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1973–1976 (1977)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1969–1972 (1973)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1965–1968 (1969)
  • Congressional Quarterly, Congress and the Nation: 1945–1964 (1965), the first of the series
• Cooper, John Milton, Jr. Breaking the Heart of the Globe: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations. Cambridge U. Printing, 2001.
• Davidson, Roger H., and Walter J. Oleszek, eds. (1998). Congress and Its Members, sixth ed. Washington DC: Congressional Quarterly. (Legislative process, informal practices, and member information)
• Gould, Lewis 50. The Most Exclusive Club: A History Of The Modern U.s.a. Senate (2005)
• Hernon, Joseph Martin. Profiles in Character: Hubris and Heroism in the U.South. Senate, 1789–1990 Sharpe, 1997.
• Hoebeke, C. H. The Road to Mass Democracy: Original Intent and the Seventeenth Amendment. Transaction Books, 1995. (Pop elections of senators)
• Lee, Frances Eastward. and Oppenheimer, Bruce I. Sizing Upward the Senate: The Diff Consequences of Equal Representation. U. of Chicago Printing 1999. 304 pp.
• MacNeil, Neil and Richard A. Bakery. The American Senate: An Insider's History. Oxford Academy Press, 2013. 455 pp.
• McFarland, Ernest Westward. The Ernest West. McFarland Papers: The United states of america Senate Years, 1940–1952. Prescott, Ariz.: Sharlot Hall Museum, 1995 (Democratic majority leader 1950–52)
• Malsberger, John W. From Obstruction to Moderation: The Transformation of Senate Conservatism, 1938–1952. Susquehanna U. Press 2000
• Mann, Robert. The Walls of Jericho: Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Russell and the Struggle for Civil Rights. Harcourt Brace, 1996
• Ritchie, Donald A. (1991). Press Gallery: Congress and the Washington Correspondents. Harvard University Press.
• Ritchie, Donald A. (2001). The Congress of the U.s.a.: A Pupil Companion (2nd ed.). Oxford University Printing.
• Ritchie, Donald A. (2010). The U.S. Congress: A Very Brusk Introduction. Oxford University Press.
• Rothman, David. Politics and Ability the United States Senate 1869–1901 (1966)
• Swift, Elaine Chiliad. The Making of an American Senate: Reconstitutive Modify in Congress, 1787–1841. U. of Michigan Press, 1996
• Valeo, Frank. Mike Mansfield, Majority Leader: A Different Kind of Senate, 1961–1976 Sharpe, 1999 (Senate Democratic leader)
• VanBeek, Stephen D. Mail-Passage Politics: Bicameral Resolution in Congress. U. of Pittsburgh Printing 1995
• Weller, Cecil Edward, Jr. Joe T. Robinson: Ever a Loyal Democrat. U. of Arkansas Press, 1998. (Arkansas Democrat who was Majority leader in 1930s)
• Wilson, Woodrow. Congressional Government. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1885; also 15th ed. 1900, repr. by photoreprint, Transaction books, 2002.
• Wirls, Daniel and Wirls, Stephen. The Invention of the United States Senate Johns Hopkins U. Press, 2004. (Early on history)
• Zelizer, Julian Eastward. On Capitol Hill : The Struggle to Reform Congress and its Consequences, 1948–2000 (2006)
• Zelizer, Julian Eastward., ed. The American Congress: The Building of Democracy (2004) (overview)

Official Senate histories

• Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, 1774–1989

The post-obit are published past the Senate Historical Office.

• Robert Byrd. The Senate, 1789–1989. Four volumes.
  • Vol. I, a chronological serial of addresses on the history of the Senate
  • Vol. II, a topical serial of addresses on diverse aspects of the Senate'due south operation and powers
  • Vol. III, Classic Speeches, 1830–1993
  • Vol. IV, Historical Statistics, 1789–1992
• Dole, Bob. Historical Almanac of the United States Senate
• Hatfield, Mark O., with the Senate Historical Role. Vice Presidents of the United States, 1789–1993 (essays reprinted online)
• Frumin, Alan S. Riddick's Senate Procedure. Washington, D.C.: Authorities Printing Part, 1992.

External links

This sound file was created from a revision of this commodity dated four August 2006 (2006-08-04), and does non reflect subsequent edits.

• The United states of america Senate Official Website
  • Sortable contact information
  • Senate Chamber Map
  • Standing Rules of the Senate
  • Biographical Directory of the United states Congress, 1774 to Present
• List of Senators who died in office, via PoliticalGraveyard.com
• Nautical chart of all U.S. Senate seat-holders, past state, 1978–present, via Texas Tech Academy
• A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825 Archived July 25, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, via Tufts University
• Bill Hammons' American Politics Guide – Members of Congress past Committee and State with Partisan Voting Index Archived December thirty, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
• Works by or about United States Senate at Internet Annal
• First U.S. Senate session aired by C-SPAN via C-SPAN
• Senate Manual via govinfo.gov (U.South. Government Publishing Part)
• Usa Senate Calendars and Schedules
• Information near U.South. Bills and Resolutions Archived January two, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
• Works by United States Senate at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate

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